Confidentiality is an ethical principle associated with several professions (e.g., medicine, law). In ethics, and (in some places) in law and alternative forms of legal resolution such as mediation, some types of communication between a person and one of these professionals are "privileged" and may not be discussed or divulged to third parties.

Confidentiality has also been defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in ISO-17799 as "ensuring that information is accessible only to those authorized to have access" and is one of the cornerstones of information security. Confidentiality is one of the design goals for many cryptosystems, made possible in practice by the techniques of modern cryptography.

Confidentiality of information, enforced in an adaptation of the military's classic "need to know" principle, forms the cornerstone of information security in today's corporations. The so called 'confidentiality bubble' restricts information flows, with both positive and negative consequences.

Legal confidentiality

Lawyers are often required by law to keep confidential anything pertaining to the representation of a client. The duty of confidentiality is much broader than the attorney-client evidentiary privilege, which only covers ''communications'' between the attorney and the client.

Both the privilege and the duty serve the purpose of encouraging clients to speak frankly about their cases. This way, lawyers will be able to carry out their duty to provide clients with zealous representation. Otherwise, the opposing side may be able to surprise the lawyer in court with something which he did not know about his client, which may weaken the client's position. Also, a distrustful client might hide a relevant fact which he thinks is incriminating, but which a skilled lawyer could turn to the client's advantage (for example, by raising affirmative defenses like self-defense).

However, most jurisdictions have exceptions for situations where the lawyer has reason to believe that the client may kill or seriously injure someone, may cause substantial injury to the financial interest or property of another, or is using (or seeking to use) the lawyer's services to perpetrate a crime or fraud.

In such situations the lawyer has the discretion, but not the obligation, to disclose information designed to prevent the planned action. Most states have a version of this discretionary disclosure rule under Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 1.6 (or its equivalent).

A few jurisdictions have made this traditionally discretionary duty mandatory. For example, see the New Jersey and Virginia Rules of Professional Conduct, Rule 1.6.

In some jurisdictions the lawyer must try to convince the client to conform his or her conduct to the boundaries of the law before disclosing any otherwise confidential information.

Note that these exceptions generally do not cover crimes that have already occurred, even in extreme cases where murderers have confessed the location of missing bodies to their lawyers but the police are still looking for those bodies. The U.S. Supreme Court and many state supreme courts have affirmed the right of a lawyer to withhold information in such situations. Otherwise, it would be impossible for any criminal defendant to obtain a zealous defense.

California is famous for having one of the strongest duties of confidentiality in the world; its lawyers must protect client confidences at "every peril to himself or herself." Until an amendment in 2004, California lawyers were not even permitted to disclose that a client was about to commit murder.

Recent legislation in the UK curtails the confidentiality professionals like lawyers and accountants can maintain at the expense of the state. Accountants, for example, are required to disclose to the state any suspicions of fraudulent accounting and, even, the legitimate use of tax saving schemes if those schemes are not already known to the tax authorities.

History of the English law of confidentiality

The modern English law of confidence stems from the judgment of the Lord Chancellor, Lord Cottenham, in which he restrained the defendant from publishing a catalogue of private etchings made by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert (Prince Albert v Strange).

However, the jurisprudential basis of confidentiality remained largely unexamined until the case of ''Saltman Engineering Co. Ltd. v Campbell Engineering Co. Ltd.'', in which the Court of Appeal upheld the existence of an equitable doctrine of confidence, independent of contract.

In ''Coco v A.N.Clark (Engineers) Ltd'' [1969] R.P.C. 41, Megarry J developed an influential tri-partite analysis of the essential ingredients of the cause of action for breach of confidence: the information must be confidential in quality, it must be imparted so as to import an obligation of confidence, and there must be an unauthorised use of that information to the detriment of the party communicating it.

The law in its then current state of development was authoritatively summarised by Lord Goff in the Spycatcher case. He identified three qualifications limiting the broad general principle that a duty of confidence arose when confidential information came to the knowledge of a person (the confidant) in circumstances where he had notice that the information was confidential, with the effect that it would be just in all the circumstances that he should be precluded from disclosing the information to others. First, once information had entered the public domain, it could no longer be protected as confidential. Secondly, the duty of confidence applied neither to useless information, nor to trivia. Thirdly, the public interest in the preservation of a confidence might be outweighed by a greater public interest favouring disclosure.

The incorporation into domestic law of Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights by the Human Rights Act 1998 has since had a profound effect on the development of the English law of confidentiality. Article 8 provides that everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence. In ''Campbell v MGN Ltd'', the House of Lords held that the Daily Mirror had breached Naomi Campbell’s confidentiality rights by publishing reports and pictures of her attendance at Narcotics Anonymous meetings. Although their lordships were divided 3-2 as to the result of the appeal and adopted slightly different formulations of the applicable principles, there was broad agreement that, in confidentiality cases involving issues of privacy, the focus shifted from the nature of the relationship between claimant and defendant to (a) an examination of the nature of the information itself and (b) a balancing exercise between the claimant’s rights under Article 8 and the defendant’s competing rights (for example, under Article 10, to free speech).

It presently remains unclear to what extent and how this judge-led development of a partial law of privacy will impact on the equitable principles of confidentiality as traditionally understood.

Medical confidentiality

Confidentiality is commonly applied to conversations between doctors and patients. Legal protections prevent physicians from revealing certain discussions with patients, even under oath in court. This physician-patient privilege only applies to secrets shared between physician and patient during the course of providing medical care.

The rule dates back to at least the Hippocratic Oath, which reads: ''Whatever, in connection with my professional service, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret.''

Traditionally, medical ethics has viewed the duty of confidentiality as a relatively non-negotiable tenet of medical practice. More recently, critics like Jacob Appel have argued for a more nuanced approach to the duty that acknowledges the need for flexibility in many cases.

Confidentiality is mandated in America by HIPAA laws, specifically the Privacy Rule, and various state laws, some more rigorous than HIPAA. However, numerous exceptions to the rules have been carved out over the years. For example, many American states require physicians to report gunshot wounds to the police and impaired drivers to the Department of Motor Vehicles. Confidentiality is also challenged in cases involving the diagnosis of a sexually transmitted disease in a patient who refuses to reveal the diagnosis to a spouse, and in the termination of a pregnancy in an underage patient, without the knowledge of the patient's parents. Many states in the U.S. have laws governing parental notification in underage abortion.

Clinical and counseling psychology

The ethical principle of confidentiality requires that information shared by the client with the therapist in the course of treatment is not shared with others. This is important for the therapeutic alliance, as it promotes an environment of trust. There are important exceptions to confidentiality, namely where it conflicts with the clinician's duty to warn or duty to protect. This includes instances of suicidal behavior or homicidal plans, child abuse, elder abuse and dependent adult abuse.

See also

References

External links

Confidentiality

Category:Applications of cryptography Category:Journalism sourcing Category:Secrecy Category:Professional ethics

ar:السرية de:Verschwiegenheitspflicht es:confidencialidad eo:Konfidenceco fr:Confidentialité it:confidenzialità nl:Beroepsgeheim no:Taushetsplikt ja:機密 pl:Poufność pt:confidencialidade sr:Професионална тајна fi:Vaitiolovelvollisuus sv:Tystnadsplikt ru:Конфиденциальность th:การรักษาความลับ uk:Конфіденційність

birth date	August 07, 1947
birth place	Kansas City, Missouri, U.S.
occupation	Actor
yearsactive	1976 – present }}

Holmes Osborne (born November 7, 1947) is an American actor, best known for starring in Richard Kelly's films - ''Donnie Darko'' (2001), ''Southland Tales'' (2007) and ''The Box'' (2009). He's also played the father of Guy Patterson in the movie ''That Thing You Do!'', and starred in the movie ''Bring it On''. He has made appearances in TV shows such as ''House M. D.'', ''Cold Case'', ''CSI: Miami'', ''Dharma & Greg'' and a recurring role in ''Invasion''.

In 1999 he guest starred, along with Lance Henriksen (reprising his role as Frank Black), in an episode of The X-Files as a necromancer for the Millennium Group. This was X-Files series creator Chris Carter's attempt at wrapping up the story from his original show Millennium, which was canceled in 1999. He is a graduate of Odessa, Missouri, High School. Osborne is currently a resident of Bates City, Missouri. He also used a Scottish accent to play Selkirk Tander, an antagonist in ''Air Buddies''.

External links

Category:1947 births Category:Living people Category:People from Kansas City, Missouri Category:American film actors Category:American television actors

de:Holmes Osborne it:Holmes Osborne pl:Holmes Osborne

Name	Torrie Wilson
Names	SamanthaTorrie Wilson
Height
Weight
Birth date	July 24, 1975
Birth place	Boise, Idaho
Resides	Houston, Texas
Billed	Boise, Idaho
Trainer	Dave FinlayJohnny AceBilly KidmanMadusa
Debut	February 8, 1999
Retired	May 8, 2008}}

Torrie Anne Wilson (born July 24, 1975) is a retired American professional wrestler, fitness competitor and model. She is best known for her tenures in World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE), where she worked on both their SmackDown and Raw brands throughout her eight-year run.

As a fitness competitor, Wilson won the Miss Galaxy competition in 1998. Shortly after, she was signed by World Championship Wrestling, where she stayed from 1999 until 2001. In 2001, she began appearing on World Wrestling Federation (WWF) television as part of The Invasion storyline. Her most high profile storyline took place in 2003 when she feuded with Dawn Marie. Wilson has also been a part of the all-female stable, or group of affiliated wrestlers, known as Vince's Devils, which ended its run in 2006.

Aside from wrestling, Wilson has been on the cover of several magazines, including ''FHM'' and ''Playboy'', which she posed for twice.

Early life

Wilson was born in Boise, Idaho. She claims that while growing up she was painfully shy as a child. Wilson found her niche in many school activities, including cheerleading, dance, and was very competitive in track and field.

During her sophomore year of high school, after Wilson's interest in modeling grew more serious, her mother urged her to pursue it. They visited an agency and were informed that Wilson would have to lose weight to be considered for jobs. In the process of losing weight, she began a bout with anorexia nervosa and then bulimia that lasted from ages 14-to-20.

After recovering from the disorder, Wilson became involved in fitness. She began eating six meals a day and working out. She placed third in her first competition, and she later won the Miss Galaxy competition in 1998. She then spent some time on the Extreme Fitness Team. As part of the Women's Tri-Fitness Championships in 1998, Wilson won first place in the Grace and Physique round.

Later in 1998, Wilson moved to Los Angeles to pursue acting. She began acting classes and was introduced to an agent who helped her gain a few jobs.

Professional wrestling career

World Championship Wrestling (1999–2000)

Wilson's start in wrestling came when she attended a World Championship Wrestling (WCW) show with her boyfriend in 1999. After going backstage, she was asked to walk out to the ring with Scott Steiner. Later, Kevin Nash expressed an interest in doing a storyline with her. She debuted as "Samantha", who was brought in by the New World Order (nWo) to seduce David Flair into turning against his father, Ric Flair. They appeared together on February 21 when Wilson slapped Ric, and David zapped him with a taser. At the 1999 Bash at the Beach, Wilson acted as a valet for Flair as he captured the WCW United States Heavyweight Championship from Dean Malenko.

Although she left WCW television afterwards, she returned in the fall of 1999 under her real name. Wilson began managing Billy Kidman and his Filthy Animals teammates. As a result, she found herself involved in the Animals continuing feud with The Revolution. In November, Wilson and Eddie Guerrero were shown flirting on the "Kidcam", a hidden camera segment, which led to a storyline feud between Kidman and Guerrero. Following this, Wilson once again disappeared from television. Wilson, however, returned on January 19, 2000, and in April 2000, Kidman and Wilson joined a stable known as the New Blood, making them both villainous characters. As part of their newest storyline, Kidman became jealous of the attention Wilson began to give to fellow New Blood member Horace Hogan. In June, Wilson gave Kidman a hit at the Great American Bash, causing him to lose to Horace's uncle, Hulk Hogan.

Wilson was taken off of television following the encounter, reappearing at July's Bash at the Beach during a match between Shane Douglas and Buff Bagwell. After the match, Wilson and Douglas left together, which led to a feud between Kidman and Douglas. At September's Fall Brawl, Wilson and Douglas defeated Kidman and Madusa in a mixed tag team match with scaffolding erected above the ring. Wilson was released from WCW in December 2000.

World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment (2001–2008)

The Invasion (2001)

Wilson made her WWF television debut on the June 28, 2001 episode of ''SmackDown!'' as part of The Alliance during the Invasion angle in 2001. In her first storyline with the company, she portrayed Vince McMahon's latest affair. She also regularly teamed with fellow WCW performer Stacy Keibler. The duo made their wrestling debuts in the WWF in a Bra and Panties match against Lita and Trish Stratus at the InVasion pay-per-view, which Stratus and Lita won by stripping their opponents to their underwear. The following night on ''Raw'', Wilson defeated Stratus in a Paddle on a Pole match. Despite her relative lack of in-ring experience, Wilson, alongside Keibler and Ivory, regularly feuded with the WWF Divas, as well as interfering in matches on behalf of other wrestlers in The Alliance.

She became a fan favorite during the Invasion storyline when her character began an on-screen romance with Tajiri. This new romance caused Keibler to turn against Wilson, and as a result of this, Wilson defected to the WWF. Wilson defeated Keibler in a lingerie match at No Mercy defeating her opponent while dressed in lingerie.

Relationship and feud with Tajiri; feud with Dawn Marie (2002–2003)

When the first ever brand separation of the WWF roster took place in April 2002, Wilson was drafted to SmackDown!. Shortly after this, as part of the storyline, Tajiri soon became jealous over the increased attention that Wilson received from other men, so he forced her to wear a geisha outfit, and he also appeared to mistreat her in matches. Wilson finally grew tired of this, and during Tajiri's match against The Hurricane, she got on top of the announcer's table and stripped off her clothing. The distraction allowed The Hurricane to pick up the win. At Rebellion 2002, Torrie and her real life boyfriend at the time Billy Kidman defeated John Cena and Dawn Marie in an intergender tag team match. After the match Torrie and Kidman kissed.

Wilson's most high profile storyline during her first few years with the company was in 2002/3 when she feuded with Dawn Marie. In the angle, Dawn Marie attempted to marry Wilson's real-life father Al Wilson. Dawn also revealed that she had developed feelings for Torrie, and the two shared an on-screen kiss. Dawn even offered to cancel the wedding if Torrie would go to a hotel with her for the night. Despite this, as part of the storyline, Dawn developed feelings for Al and the two got married on an episode of ''SmackDown!'' in their underwear. Al then, in storyline, died from a heart attack after having rigorous sex numerous times in succession on their honeymoon. In response, Wilson defeated Dawn at No Mercy in October. She defeated Dawn Marie again at the Royal Rumble in what was billed as a ''Stepmother vs. Stepdaughter match''. The feud lasted approximately nine months.

Playboy (2003–2004)

In May 2003, Wilson appeared in a pictorial and on the cover of ''Playboy'' magazine. A few months earlier, when her pictorial was announced, a short storyline feud with Nidia developed, with the latter being jealous of the fact that Wilson was chosen for the cover and spread in the magazine. In weekly vignettes aired on ''SmackDown!'', both Nidia and her on-screen boyfriend Jamie Noble made trips to The Playboy Mansion to complain to Hugh Hefner over his choice.

Soon after, on an April 2003 episode of ''SmackDown!'' during a segment labeled as Torrie's ''Playboy Coming Out Party'' former Diva and ''Playboy'' covergirl Sable made her return to WWE after a four year absence. This began a storyline between the two women where for weeks, Sable played mind games with Wilson, being friendly one moment and unfriendly the next. This all led up to a bikini contest between the two at Judgment Day, which Wilson won. After the contest, Wilson kissed the former Women's Champion Sable on the lips, showing her that there was "no hard feelings" due to Wilson's win over the WWE veteran. Torrie then got her first WWE Women's Championship match on Smackdown! after Women's Champion Molly Holly invaded the show interrupting Torrie's photoshoot and challenging her to a match in which Torrie was unsuccessful in winninng.

Continuing her feud with Noble and Nidia from earlier in the year, Wilson managed Billy Gunn upon his WWE return in the summer of 2003. The feud came to an end after Nidia and Noble both became fan favorites and sided with Gunn and Wilson. After the formation of this alliance, Wilson, Nidia, and Dawn Marie feuded with Shaniqua for a short period of time, which led to Shaniqua physically dominating Wilson and Nidia in a handicap match.

Wilson teamed with Sable in March 2004 to feud with Raw Divas Stacy Keibler and Miss Jackie. The feud's storyline centered on the latter duo's jealously of Wilson and Sable as ''Playboy'' cover girls, as well as their recently being named cover girls yet again, as the two Divas were announced to be featured together in an upcoming ''Playboy'' March 2004 issue. After weeks of rivalry, Wilson and Sable defeated Keibler and Miss Jackie in a ''Playboy Evening Gown match'' at WrestleMania XX by stripping their opponents of their evening gowns. Later in the year, Wilson engaged in a short feud with Sable, who defeated her at the Great American Bash.

In November 2004, Wilson began feuding with Hiroko. On February 10, 2005 on a special edition of ''SmackDown!'' (recorded on February 4 in Saitama, Japan), Torrie defeated Hiroko in a kimono match by removing her kimono first.

Raw and Vince's Devils (2005–2006)

It was revealed on August 21, 2005 that Wilson and Candice Michelle had been moved to the Raw brand. Wilson then became a villain by attacking Ashley Massaro. Her and Candice's storyline feud with Massaro continued over the next couple weeks, as the duo, along with their enforcer Victoria, made things difficult for Massaro. Massaro evened the score on the September 12, 2005 edition of ''Raw'' when she brought out the returning Trish Stratus, and the duo proceeded to attack the villains. This led to a tag match at Unforgiven, where the team of Stratus and Massaro defeated Wilson and Victoria. The feud continued into WWE Homecoming, where Stratus and Massaro defeated Wilson, Candice, and Victoria in the first ever three on two Bra and Panties match by stripping all three of their opponents.

Wilson was absent from WWE television for quite some time after this, leading to rumors and false reports that she had been released from WWE. In actuality, she had taken a leave of absence to tend to some "personal issues". Wilson was surprised by the rumors after some media personnel offered to help her find work. WWE issued a statement on their website, in which Wilson also commented, denouncing the rumors. In the statement she joked she had to "call the WWE office and ask them if they forgot to fire me".

On November 28, Wilson made her return to ''Raw'', where she, Candice and Victoria faced off against the team of Stratus, Massaro, and their new ally Mickie James. Vince's Devils was a short-lived alliance. Wilson soon became a fan favorite after Candice and Victoria both turned against her. The storyline feud between Candice and Wilson led to a match where Wilson faced ''Playboy'''s newest cover girl, Candice, at WrestleMania 22 in a ''Playboy Pillow Fight''. Wilson won the match, but the feud still continued on-and-off for some time. On the June 12, 2006 edition of ''Raw'', Wilson defeated Candice in the first ever "''Wet and Wild match''", a wrestling match involving water balloons and squirt guns, in which the winner of the match would be on the cover of the ''WWE 2006 Summer Special'' magazine.

Various storylines; departure (2006–2008)

Wilson also made a special appearance on WWE's ECW brand on August 22, 2006 representing Raw in a bikini contest against ECW Diva Kelly Kelly. A winner was not decided, however, and a six-person mixed tag match began pitting Wilson, Tommy Dreamer, and The Sandman against the team of Kelly Kelly, Mike Knox, and Test. Wilson's team was victorious.

In the final months of 2006, Wilson entered into an on-screen relationship with Carlito. During this time, Ric Flair took an interest in Carlito, and Wilson accompanied the duo in a series of tag matches. In May 2007, however, Carlito turned against Flair and dumped Wilson when he became a heel. The storyline came to a halt when on the June 11 edition of ''Raw'', Wilson was drafted from Raw to SmackDown! as part of the 2007 WWE Draft.

On the September 28 edition of ''SmackDown!'', she was attacked in the ring by the debuting Krissy Vaine, but the feud was prematurely dropped when Vaine left the company. Her last match was against Victoria, whom she defeated. In November, Wilson took time off from wrestling to undergo physical therapy in relation to a previous back injury. She was released from her WWE contract on May 8, 2008.

In April 2009 Wilson returned to the WWE for one night at WrestleMania XXV as a part of the 25 Diva Battle Royal representing the past WWE Divas, in which she was eliminated by Beth Phoenix.

Other media

Aside from ''Playboy'', Wilson has also graced the cover of several other magazines, including the September 2006 cover of ''FHM'' magazine.

Wilson was also number forty-three on ''FHM'''s 100 Sexiest Women in the World list in 2007. She has also been on AskMen.com's list of the Most Desirable Women in the World twice: she was number twenty-two in 2006 and number sixty-five in 2007.

Wilson, along with several other Divas, filmed Timbaland's music video "Throw It On Me" in April 2007. Also in 2007, Wilson made a special appearance, along with Mick Foley, at the Special Olympics World Games in Shanghai. She appeared on the February 6, 2008 episode of ''Project Runway'' where the contestants designed wrestling attire for several of the Divas.

In April 2009, Wilson signed on to appear in the NBC reality show, ''I'm a Celebrity…Get Me out of Here!'', which premiered in June. On the show's season finale, Wilson was named the runner-up to winner Lou Diamond Phillips.

Personal life

Wilson admits not having watched wrestling when she was younger, but says that since becoming involved in the industry, she has become a fan of Hulk Hogan.

While working for WWE, Wilson was on the road for up to 300 days per year. She has a Maltese named Chloe, who traveled with her. While on the road, Wilson worked out at least four days a week. Usually, her workout consisted of an hour of cardiovascular workouts and a half-hour of lifting weights.

Wilson also has a close friendship with Stacy Keibler. At one point, they were roommates in Los Angeles, California.

After being together for four years, Wilson married Peter Gruner (known on-screen as Billy Kidman) on July 11, 2003. They lived together in Tampa, Florida, when not traveling. The couple were officially divorced in 2007.

In September 2007, Wilson opened her official clothing line "Officially Jaded", alongside Nick Mitchell, a former WWE wrestler who was known as "Mitch" of the Spirit Squad. The couple began dating in mid-2006. She opened a store in The Woodlands, Texas, at the upscale Market Street district. On September 14, 2008, Torrie made an appearance at the inaugural Wrestler's Rescue event held in Piscataway, New Jersey, an event to create awareness and to help raise money to support the health care needs of retired professional wrestlers.

In wrestling

Finishing moves

''Nose Job'' (Sitout facebuster) – 2005–2008

''Torrie-nado DDT'' (Running or diving tornado DDT) – 2002–2004

Snap DDT – 2004–2005

Swinging neckbreaker – 2002–2004 , signature 2005-2007

Signature moves

*Leaping Clothesline

Baseball slide

Big splash – WCW

Corner lariat

''Facial'' (Stinkface)

Handspring back elbow – 2001–2002, 2006

Schoolgirl, sometimes from out of the corner to an oncoming opponent

Snap suplex

Tilt-a-whirl headscissors takedown

Wrestlers managed

*Filthy Animals

Carlito

Shane Douglas

David Flair

Billy Gunn

Billy Kidman

Tajiri

*Rey Mysterio

Entrance themes

*"Need a Little Time" by Lilian Garcia (2003–2005)

"Not Enough for Me" by Jim Johnston

"A Girl Like That" by Eleventh Hour (May 2006–May 2008)

Championships and accomplishments

World Wrestling Entertainment

Golden Thong Award (2002)

Other titles

Miss Galaxy (1998)

Notes

References

External links

WWE Alumni Profile

Category:1975 births Category:American female models Category:American female professional wrestlers Category:People from Houston, Texas Category:Fitness & figure competitors Category:I'm a Celebrity…Get Me out of Here! contestants Category:Living people Category:People from Boise, Idaho Category:Professional wrestling managers and valets

ar:توري ويلسون ca:Torrie Wilson de:Torrie Wilson es:Torrie Wilson fr:Torrie Wilson it:Torrie Wilson nl:Torrie Wilson ja:トリー・ウィルソン pt:Torrie Wilson ro:Torrie Wilson ru:Уилсон, Торри simple:Torrie Wilson fi:Torrie Wilson tr:Torrie Wilson